Medical Study 📚

 *Protein biosynthesis 👇🏻 . [1] "Protein biosynthesis, or protein synthesis, is a core biological process, occurring inside cells, balancing the loss of cellular proteins (via degradation or export) through the production of new proteins. Proteins perform a number of critical functions as enzymes, structural proteins or hormones. Protein synthesis is a very similar process for both prokaryotes and eukaryotes but there are some distinct differences. Protein synthesis can be divided broadly into two phases:  [2] "transcription and translation. During transcription, a section of DNA encoding a protein, known as a gene, is converted into a molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA). This conversion is carried out by enzymes, known as RNA polymerases, in the nucleus of the cell.   [3] "In eukaryotes, this mRNA is initially produced in a premature form (pre-mRNA) which undergoes post-transcriptional modifications to produce mature mRNA. The mature mRNA is exported from the cell...

 BASIC STRUCTURE OF IgG "👇🏻 Electron microscopic studies have revealed that IgG is a Y-shaped tetrapeptide protein formed of two identical light chains and two identical heavy chains. So an antibody is represented as H₂L₂ (1) Light Chains. Each light chain is formed of about 214 amino acids. Light chains are of two types in all the classes of immunoglobulin: Kappa (к) and lambda (λ.) chains . A given antibody has either both Kappa or both lambda type light chains. The amino acid sequence analysis of light chains has shown that a light chain is formed of 2 parts: Variable (V) of 1-108 amino acids and varies from one antibody to another; and Constant (C) of 109-214 amino acids and is characteristic of the antibody. Each light chain also has two intrachain disulphide (S-S) loops, one in variable part and other in constant part. (2) Heavy Chains. These are two in number. Each heavy chain is formed of 440 amino acids. Each heavy chain is formed of two parts: Variable region (form...

* Structure of maize grain (Monocot, endospermic Grain " 👇🏻 It is one seeded fruit called caryopsis or grain because pericarp (fruit wall) is fused with testa . Each grain is made up of following parts : 1. Seed coat. It is the outer brownish layer of the grain. In this, seed and fruit wall are fused together. 2. Endosperm. It comprises the major part of grain and is filled with reserve food. It is composed of two regions (a) Outer single layered aleurone layer, mainly made up of aleurone proteins (b) Inner starchy endosperm. It is separated from embryo by a layer called epithelium. 3. Embryo. It contains a single lateral cotyledon called scutellum and embryo axis with plumule and radicle are at its two ends. Root cap protects the tip of radicle. Radicle is surrounded by a protective sheath called coleorhiza. Plumule is also protected by a covered sheath known as coleoptile. Show of image in (Maize Grian):👇🏻 * Seeds as physiological enigma :👇🏻 Seeds have been considered as...

  What is Equisetum ? Plant body is differentiated into stem, leaves and roots. Height is from a few centimetres to several metres. Stem has two components, underground rhizome and upright aerial branches. Stems are jointed. Internodes possess longitudinal ridges or ribs and hollow interiors. Nodes possess a whorl of scale leaves. Function of photosynthesis is carried out by green aerial stem branches. Intercalary meristem occurs above the nodes. In rhizome some of the branch primordia develop into tubers, e.g., E. arvense. Due to presence of intercalary meristems, internodes can be easily pulled out as pipes. Adventitious roots develop in whorls over the nodes of rhizome. Xylem has xylem vessels. Aerial branches develop terminal strobili. In E. arvense, there are two types of aerial branches, green sterile and brown fertile. Terminal strobili occur only on fertile branches. Pteropsida (Ferns). The most conspicuous of the pteridophytes are the ferns. Ferns are pteridophytes that b...

  What is Biopatent ? Government grants the patent to certain inventors as permission to use invention for commercial purpose. Biopatents are given to : (i) For producing new product or invention. (ii) Modified and improved earlier invention. (iii) Technical know-how. (iv) New designing concept. Biopatents are being granted by the Government for biological entities and products derived from them. Countries like USA, Japan, members of European Union are granting biopatents.  Sometimes the unplanned genetic modification of organisms may produce unpredictable harmful results. So the Indian Government has set up Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) which keeps an eye on the validity of GM approach and the  safety of GM organisms for the public services like food and medicine services. A nice example of biopatency of indigenous biological resource by an influential corporate is that of basmati rice, an important food grain crop being grown in the Asian region even si...

 " What is Biopiracy ? Pirates in general terms were blood thirsty. They stole and killed others to enrich themselves. The biopirates are slightly different. They do not kill, they patent , They are completely protected by law. As a result, no body hunts them. Such practices are being employed by corporations and different Governments. Scientists go and collect various genetic materials like seed etc., from country like India or Amazon. Biological resources or bioresources include the organisms which are used to derive commercial benefits. Biological resources or bioresources include the organisms which are used to derive commercial benefits. SOME INTERESTING ASPECTS OF BIOPIRACY 1. Adalberto Antonio, Judge of State of Amazoans points out that Harry Wickham took about 70,000 seeds on behalf of Kew Gardens, Britain. This only act plunged the State of Amazoans in to starvation for years altogether. 2. American countries are also opposing the new patents on life and to commercialis...

 * SEX DETERMINATION "👇🏻 The sex is hereditary difference between two individuals of the same species. Sex is one of the most conspicuous and interesting kinds of hereditary differences observed among individuals of the same species. Determination of sex is determined at the time of fertilization, when the male and female gametes fuse together. In most of organisms, sex is determined by one or one pair of chromosomes called sex chromosomes or allosomes. A . Male heterogamety :-- Males form two types of gametes. One gamete possesses X chromosome and other lacks it. In some cases male may possess a Y chromosome. Such males are known as heterogametic Females in such cases form only one type of gamete which contain X chromosome Male heterogamy is of two types 1. 'XX (9) - XY' (ở) type :-👇🏻 By 1900, when microscope techniques had become quite well developed and chromosome behaviour was understood, it was noticed that there was one pair of chromosomes that differed from othe...

 " What is Bioethics ? Certain acts are regulated by communities to consider their legitimacy. Such regulation is called ethics. Bioethics include standards followed by us to regulate the activities linked with biological activities. Unexpected methods are being adopted in the fields of biology like recombinant DNA technology and pharmaceutical studies. Bioethical concerns related to biotechnology are: (i) For the production of pharmaceutical products like proteins many animals are reduced to the status of factory. (ii) Animals undergo great physical sufferings while performing experiments on them. (iii) There is violation of 'integrity of species' due to transferring of a transgene from one species to another. (iv) 'Concept of humanness' is diluted due to introduction of human genes to various animals or vice versa. (v) Biotechnological studies have been considered as mere exploitation of living beings. (vi) Biodiversity may be affected due to biotechnological exp...

 " GENE THERAPY " Gene therapy is to replace 'a faulty gene' by a normal healthy functional gene. Gene therapy is a collection of methods which permits the correction of a gene defect which has been diagnosed in a child/embryo. In gene therapy normal genes are inserted into individual or embryo to take over the function and compensate for non-functional gene. Show of Gene therapy in patient of SCID :👇🏻 Types of therapy :--👇🏻 (1) Germ line gene therapy. It leads to modification of germ cells i.e. sperms or eggs. This is done by introducing functional genes which are integrated into their genomes. This type of therapy is inheritable. (ii) Somatic cell gene therapy . It leads to modification of somatic cells by introducing concerned gene in body cells. It removes symptoms of disorder temporarily. Under gene therapy, hereditary diseases like sickle cell anaemia to killer diseases like SCID (Severe combined immuno deficiency). SCID occurs due to defect in the gene for...

 " BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE  " Show of A simplified representation of the production of hirudin from transgenic Brassica napus seeds: --👇🏻 Valuable pharmaceutical proteins like interferon, insulin, antibiotics have been expressed in plants due to introduction of transgenes. Such plants can produce proteins which are used in diagnosing and curing human diseases. Therapeutic protein hirudin (prevents blood clotting) has been produced from transgenic Brassica napus. Hirudin accumulates in seeds. About 30 recombinant therapeutics have been approved for human use in world over. India alone is marketing 12 of them. With the advent of genetic engineering, it is now possible to produce a number of hormones like insulin, steroid hormones like corticose, sex hormones like testosterone and estradial, relaxin, erythropoetin, bovin somatotrophin (BST). These genetically engineered hormones and growth factors are highly purified, fast acting with less side effects. Examp...

 "What is Lactation ?👇🏻 1. Definition . Lactation involves the synthesis, secretion and ejection of milk. 2. Period . Though lactation starts towards the end of pregnancy but a free flow of milk occurs only after 24 hours of child birth. It can be continued after the birth only if the child continues to suckle. 3. Mechanism . Lactation involves two phases: (i) Milk secretion. It involves the synthesis of milk by alveolar epithelium of the mammary glands and its passage through the duct system. It is regu-lated by increased secretion of prolactin hormone from the adenohypophysis of pituitary gland due to decrease in level of estrogens and progesterone after the child birth. This initiation of milk formation is called lactogenesis. Galactopoiesis is the maintenance of milk secretion. It is regulated by a number of hormonal factors like growth hormone, thyroxine and cortisol. It occurs upto 7 to 9 months after the child birth. Suckling of nipple by baby initiates the impulses wh...

 " What is Parturition" 1. Definition . It is the expelling of the fully formed young from the mother's uterus after the gestation period (about 280 days or 40 weeks in human female) i.e., of about 9.5 months after the last menstruation (But about 266 days after the day of fertilization i.e. of 38 weeks). 2. Mechanism . Parturition is induced by a complex neuroendocrine mechanism which is triggered by fully formed foetus and the placenta called foetal ejection reflex . A developing foetus secretes hormones from its adrenal glands. These hormones diffuse into the maternal blood and accumulate to stimulate the release of oxytocin (birth hormone also called pitocin) from the mother's posterior pituitary. Oxytocin causes the forceful contraction of smooth muscles of myometrium, called labour pains, which pushes the young gradually out through the dilated cervix (caused by relaxin) and vagina, with the head foremost. Uterine contraction, in turn, stimulates further secr...

 ORGANOGENESIS"👇🏻 Organogenesis includes the formation of specific   organ-systems of body from three primary germ layers of gastrula. It is an important phase of embryonic development and involves both morphogenesis and differentiation . Different organs of embryo's body are formed during different periods of pregnancy. Show Of pic Foetal Growth From 8 to 40 Weeks :👇🏻  * Period of Pregnancy --👇🏻 1. By the end of one month : --  Embryo's heart begins to beat (4th week) and heart sounds can be listened with the help of a stethoscope, Fore and hind limb buds are formed, optic vesicles and ear vesicles are established; Liver and pancreatic buds formed. 2. By the end of second month :Limbs become paddle-like (5th week) while elbows and knees established (8th week); epidermis single layered; mamumary line is established; Pharyngeal arches start developing: Nasal pits, pinna tubercles, solid lens of eye and eye lids established; Fusiform stomach and intestinal coil...

 " What is Placentation "👇🏻 A fully formed human placenta in situ : Placenta is defined as a temporary intimate mechanical and physiological connection between foetal and maternal tissues for the nutrition, respiration, excretion, etc., of the foigitate into corresponding depressions, called crypts , in the wall of the uterus. Finally, the chorionic villi fuse with the eroded uterine mucosa to form a true placenta called placenta vera . Initially the chorionic villi are distributed on the whole surface of blastocyst but later the major part of blastocyst is exposed and chorionic villi disappear from the exposed part and remain only on a disc-like area to form metadiscoidal placenta . The placenta is fully formed in 10 weeks and lasts throughout pregnancy. The placenta is connected to the embryo through an umbilical cord . The part of placenta contributed by the foetus (e.g., chorionic villi) is called foetal placenta, while the part formed by the mother is called maternal...

 " STRUCTURE of OVUM " Definition .:--Ovum is a maternal haploid gamete and is primarily concerned with receiving the sperm and is determined to develop into a fully developed multicellular organism after fertilization (syngamy) or without fertilization (parthenogenesis). It is generally with reserve food and is genetically programmed. Structure. An ovum is generally spherical, non-motile gamete with yolky cytoplasm and enclosed in one or more egg envelopes. Size of ovum varies in different animals and depends upon the amount of yolk. Size of ovum varies from 10 µ to a few cm. The largest sized egg is of ostrich and is about 170 x 135 mm. Egg size and yolk amount are interdependent. It is about 50 µ in many polychaete worms, 150 µ in tunicates but very large sized in birds and reptiles. In mammals, it is generally microlecithal and about 100 μ. Human ovum is microlecithal with large amount of cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is differentiated into outer, smaller and transparent exoplasm ...

 " SPERMATOGOAN " Definition :- A spermatozoan is a haploid male gamete whose primary function is to fuse with ovum to restore diploidy and to transmit paternal characters to the offsprings. Structure :- A mammalian sperm is minute, microscopic, flagellated and motile gamete with no nutritive material, protective envelopes and most of cell-organelles like ribosome, endoplasmic reticulum, etc. The whole body of sperm is enveloped by plasma membrane only. It is basically formed of four parts, each performing a specific function 1. Head :-  Shape of head varies in different mammals. It is generally oval and flat (in man, bull, rabbit). Basically the head is formed of two parts Acrosome (Gr. akron extremity; soma=bodybuilder  ):-- It is small cap-like pointed structure present at the tip of nucleus. It is formed from a part of Golgi body of spermatid. During the sperm entry, the acrosome secretes a lytic enzyme, called hyaluronidase) which helps in the penetration of ovum. ...

" What is Penis ? It is a cylindrical, erectile and copulatory organ. It forms the external genitalia of male. It is supported by three erectile tissues two dorsal, yellow fibrous ligamentous corpora cavernosa and one ventral, highly vascular and spongy corpus spongiosum which surrounds the urinogenital canal. Tip of penis is highly sensitive and is known as glans penis. It is covered by a retractile skin fold called foreskin or prepuce. Glans is with a slit-like opening of urinogenital canal called urethral meatus. * Functional : -- . Penis helps in insemination. Erection of penis is due to rush of artérial blood (about 10 times more) into the sinuses of corpus spongiosum aided by contraction of erector penis muscles. ---(Note):--👇🏻👇🏻   !! * There may be an explanation as to the results of other biology results, you can search the website and see. --𝒜𝓂𝒶𝓃... Aʟʟ ᴛʜᴇ ʙᴇsᴛ 😊Tʜᴀɴᴋ ғᴏʀ Yᴏᴜ 🙏🏻 !!

* BASIC PHASES OF  PHYSIOLOGY OF REPRODUCTION !! Sexual dimorphism in human male and female : 1. Gametogenesis .-  It involves the formation of baploid sex cellis or gametes, called sperms and ova, from diploid primary germ cells, called gametogonia, present in the reproductive organs called gonads (testes in malle and ovaries in female). Gametogenesis is of two typeand.  (a) Spermatogenesis.--  Formation of haploid sperms tvom diploid spermatogonia of the testes of male organism. (b) Oogenesis. -- Formation of halploid ova from diploid cogonia of the ovaries of female organism. 2. Insemination (Ejaculation). -- It involves release of seminal fluid of male in the vagina of female at the end of copulatory act. 3. Fertilization. -- It involves the fusion of haploid male and female gametes to form diploid zygote. The fusion of gametic nuclei is called karyogamy while mixing of two sets of chromosomes of two gametes is called amphimixis. 4. Cleavage.--  It includes ...

" HUMAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM "  -----👇🏻 It is that system which is concerned with sperm formation. It is located in the pelvic region. It is formed of a pair of testes (also called testicles) alongwith their accessory ducts (ie. rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis and vas deferens), gland and the external genitalia.         Show of Diagram :: *  Testes :-  In biology, testes (singular: testis) are male reproductive organs responsible: 1. *Sperm*: male gametes (reproductive cells) for fertilization. 2. *Testosterone*: a hormone regulating male reproductive development, sperm production, and secondary sex characteristics. Testes are located in the scrotum and play a crucial role in male fertility and reproductive health. Show of Diagram testis of Man : !! * There may be an explanation as to the results of other biology results, you can search the website and see. --𝒜𝓂𝒶𝓃... Aʟʟ ᴛʜᴇ ʙᴇsᴛ 😊Tʜᴀɴᴋ ғᴏʀ Yᴏᴜ 🙏🏻 !!

*Reproductive Technology! !  Reproductive technology encompasses various medical techniques to enhance fertility and increase conception chances. Here's a rundown of key terms and technologies: *Types of Reproductive Technologies:* - *IVF (In Vitro Fertilization)*: Fertilizing an egg with sperm outside the body and transferring the embryo into the uterus. - *ICSI (Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection)*: Injecting a single sperm directly into an egg to overcome fertilization issues. - *ART (Assisted Reproductive Technology)*: Includes IVF, ICSI, and other techniques to assist reproduction. - *IUI (Intrauterine Insemination)*: Placing sperm directly into the uterus to bypass cervical barriers. - *GIFT (Gamete Intra-Fallopian Transfer)*: Transferring eggs and sperm into the fallopian tube for fertilization. - *ZIFT (Zygote Intra-Fallopian Transfer)*: Transferring a fertilized egg into the fallopian tube. - *PGD (Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis)*: Testing embryos for genetic disorders be...

 The Meselson-Stahl experiment!  *The Meselson-Stahl Experiment (1958)* The Meselson-Stahl experiment was a groundbreaking study conducted by Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl. It provided strong evidence for the semi-conservative replication model of DNA. *Key Findings:* 1. *Experimental Design:*     - They grew E. coli bacteria in a medium containing heavy nitrogen (¹⁵N) for many generations.     - They then transferred the bacteria to a medium containing light nitrogen (¹⁴N) and allowed them to replicate. 2. *Density Gradient Centrifugation:*     - They used density gradient centrifugation to separate DNA molecules based on their density, which is determined by their nitrogen content. 3. *Results:*     - After one generation, they observed a single band of DNA with an intermediate density between ¹⁵N and ¹⁴N.     - After two generations, they observed two bands: one with intermediate density and one with light density (¹⁴N...